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12 Given a finite biosphere, material throughput—resource consumption and waste deposition—cannot grow for ever. But there are no a priori limits to development, if this term is associated with human progress in the broadest sense (including moral advance as well as material prosperity), or even to earthbound economic growth, if one is talking about the growth of monetary aggregates such as profits or GNP. What is required is a decoupling of economic performance from material impacts, so that social welfare could rise even though resource inputs and waste levels fall.

Government is drawn into the new domain because problems are judged not to have been addressed adequately by other social institutions. The welfare state has been understood to provide a safety net, a national minimum, a collective insurance fund, and supplementary citizenship benefits. It serves as a distributional complement to market and voluntary mechanisms: redistributing among individuals at different points in their lives; between the healthy and the infirm; between the employed and unemployed; between families with and without dependent children; and between the more and the less affluent.

Or at least this initially held true in the older established democracies. Among countries that have undergone a recent democratic transition (states in eastern and central Europe, for example) the environmental movement was sometimes a crucial component of the anti-authoritarian coalition, and the transition to democracy led to rapid innovation and institutionalization in the environmental field. The comparatively poor environmental record of nondemocratic states suggests an underlying link between democracy and environmental protection.

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